Throat, Jaw, Tongue and Neck Muscle Tension and Pain During Singing - Causes and Solutions

Throat, jaw, tongue and neck muscle tension, stiffness and pain are some of the most common complaints that voice teachers hear from their newer students. Tension along the vocal tract and the support muscles arises when the singer's vocal behaviours do not fall in line with natural anatomical function; with how the body is designed to generate and filter sound. A particular inefficient behaviour or localized activity may stand in the way of the coordinated whole, prohibiting freedom in a specific area of voice function. (The individual components of the voice mechanism, including breathing, laryngeal function, resonator tract shaping and articulation, must be combined and coordinated if optimal functioning and skill level are to be achieved.) All muscle tension along the vocal tract is interrelated (e.g., tension in the tongue can be connected to submandibular tension, laryngeal stiffness, etc.), and a singer may find that resolving one area of tension will serve to improve another.

This article is going to address many of the most common errors of coordination that singers make, and specifically those that cause tension or pain in the throat, jaw, tongue or neck. I intend to offer some solutions to these problems, as well. However, the root cause of many of these problems may be complex and thus difficult to pinpoint, and poor technical habits that have existed for many years, (along with the muscular imbalances that they create), may take a long time to correct.

As always, none of these solutions are guaranteed to work for all singers, as every singer has a unique instrument and approaches singing technique differently. My advice is intended only as a starting point from which singers can begin to gain some awareness of their vocal habits and perhaps resolve any simple issues. Furthermore, attempting to apply my advice on one's own, without the guidance and feedback of a skilled and knowledgeable voice instructor who can listen to and observe the individual singer, may not produce the desired results. It is always preferable that a singer seek out the help of a vocal technique instructor who will be able to diagnose that individual singer's problems, and provide an individualized training program that will help that singer achieve greater success and optimal vocal health.

The first step in reducing any kind of tension is figuring out what is causing it. (In other words, a little 'detective work' may be required.) I recommend beginning by examining the singer's vocal posture - how he or she is filtering laryngeally generated sound through the vocal tract - to ensure that everything is in good alignment. No detail of posture should be overlooked or considered too insignificant to matter. Spend some time watching yourself in the mirror, taking a look at the movement of your neck and jaw muscles while you are breathing, talking and singing. Recite the words of a poem or the lyric of a song using normal speech inflection and conversational volume. If there is a lot of movement of the neck muscles, for example, during normal speech, you have possibly developed some incorrect and potentially detrimental speaking practices or habits that have spilled over into your singing. (Many singers find that learning correct singing technique actually improves their speaking tone and gives them more control over their speaking voices.) Although I will be addressing both incorrect and correct vocal postures in the sections below, my article entitled Singing With An 'Open Throat': Vocal Tract Shaping discusses healthy singing posture in much greater detail.

Once the causes for the excessive tension have been identified, the singer and teacher team can then begin applying appropriate exercises to correct and eliminate the problem. Patience and perseverance will be required, as it often takes a long time for tensions and stiffness to be eliminated. Singing is a skill based largely on muscle memory, and it is easy for singers to develop consistently bad habits during singing or speech that translate into tensions throughout the entire body. Many singers feel as though their problems seem like an 'automatic reflex', and muscle memory may explain why this is the case. Fortunately, muscles can usually 'relearn' good habits over time if one perseveres in learning the correct and healthy approach to vocal technique.

TENSION CAUSED BY ANXIETY, STRESS OR FAULTY PERCEPTIONS ABOUT SINGING

Examining other factors in addition to physical behaviours, such as the singer's emotional or psychological health, may also shed some light on why throat, neck, jaw or tongue tension is present. For example, ongoing stress may cause an individual to hold tension in the neck, shoulders, jaw and tongue even when that individual is not engaged in speaking or singing tasks.

Excess psychological and emotional stress can play a role in tension, and singers may need to deal with their stress (e.g., finding the source and then reducing its levels through meditation, relaxation, massage, prayer, counseling, medical treatment, etc.) before seeing alleviation of their muscular tension and improvement in their singing.

I have found that one of the major causes of any kind of tension along the vocal tract is the singer's perception of just how different singing is from speaking, and how much more difficult it necessarily must be. If the individual perceives the task of singing as being arduous and significantly more involved in function and production - more complicated and thus more difficult - than speaking, he or she will usually exert a great deal of effort in trying to sing. This kind of counterproductive thinking tends to affect the singer most in the upper range, where mounting vocal fold tension meeting with increasing breath pressure creates a sense that more muscular effort is required. Many untrained and poorly trained singers experience anxiety as pitch mounts, which inevitably causes them to tighten their muscles, or attempt to 'muscle' their way up the scale.

Here is a bit of philosophy or 'food for thought' that my vocal instructor once shared with me: Singing is about eighty percent psychological and only about twenty percent physical. Although the sounds of the voice are produced entirely by the anatomical structures of the body, making the above percentiles between physical and psychological involvement inaccurate in any true scientific sense, the mind does play a significant role in determining what kinds of sounds we produce. Assuming that some basic skill level is present, enabling the body to physically create variations in pitch, tone and articulation, the singer need only will his or her voice to produce a given pitch, melody, sound, or word and the body is able to respond to the request with a certain degree of precision.

That being said, our minds and our attitudes can certainly have a tremendous impact not only on how we use our voices, but also on how we think about our singing. A lot of the tension that we experience while singing is due to the fact that we often think of singing in unhealthy, counterproductive ways (e.g. it's a difficult and unnatural activity, we need to do something substantially different with our bodies than what we do while speaking, we need to be loud, we should sound a certain way, we should be capable of a certain range, etc.). We perceive or imagine it to be difficult and unnatural, and thus we make it more difficult and unnatural than it needs to be. Singing is easy and natural for our bodies, but not always so natural for our minds. Once our trepidatious minds take over, the physical aspects of singing can begin to suffer.

It is true that singing tasks demand greater breath management and breath energy than do speaking tasks. There is a certain degree of athleticism required of the serious singer. In normal speech, phonation on a single respiratory cycle is generally of brief duration - typically for no more than about five or six seconds. Breathing for singing, while based on the same natural processes as those used in speech, must be enhanced in order to accommodate extended duration and intensity, as well as higher pitches that are not generally used in ordinary conversation. How we breathe and produce our voices during singing remains in accordance with natural function, though. Nothing that we do during singing should violate the physiologic bases that permit natural functioning of the voice, and all premises, efforts and techniques that are inept or harmful should be abandoned immediately.

Furthermore, the rules of articulation remain relatively the same during singing tasks as they do for speaking tasks. There is a commonly used eighteenth-century Italian phrase that stresses that singing and speaking make use of the same mechanical processes. 'Si canta come si parla' means that one sings the way in which one speaks, and it is something for all singers to keep in mind. All unnatural adjustments of the vocal tract in singing within speech-inflection range should be avoided, as they lead to muscular tension, strain and potential injury, especially during more demanding singing tasks. Although some minor modifications of this principle occur when singing pitches above speech-level inflection (i.e., in the head register ), the articulatory definitions of singing should remain relatively similar to those of speech. If a singer perceives the act or technique of singing to be substantially different than that of speaking, he or she will begin to position the tongue, jaw and neck differently, as well. It is very common, for example, for misguided singers to feel the need to open their mouths very widely, believing that doing so will make their voices sound and 'project' better. Instead of improving the quality and volume of their sound, however, such an unnatural vocal posture distorts diction, hampers natural resonance and volume and creates tensions and discomfort.

Since most individuals are not encouraged to sing freely in public on a regular basis, there is also a self-consciousness that tends to accompany their singing whenever it is within earshot of others. Many people do not feel comfortable with and do not trust their singing voices, and they tend to tense up as they worry about how others might be judging the quality of their singing. They worry about successfully singing higher notes or making noticeable pitch errors, and thus embarrassing themselves. Singing is also highly personal, since the voice comes from within our own bodies, and many people assume that others will interpret their poor singing voice as deficiency or inferiority of their personhood. Many untrained singers find that taking lessons improves their singing skills, which in turn increases their confidence. With better technical skills, they soon learn to be able to trust that their voices will do what they want them to do whenever they want them to, and they are better able to relax and find enjoyment in singing.

Of course, singing in front of a professional voice instructor can be very intimidating at first, too, and most new students are nervous when singing their vocal exercises for the first several lessons. Nervousness is normal. However, it is important to remember that the teacher is there to help you improve, not to laugh at you or to make you feel bad about yourself. Teachers hear singers of all different levels, and although they may have heard better than you, they have also likely heard worse. It really is just part of the profession - a part that many voice teachers, including myself, welcome because we enjoy the challenge of finding solutions and the rewards of seeing a student improve and succeed. Being overly self-conscious will impede the learning process and will waste your time and money. (I, personally, learned this the hard way when I first started studying voice with my instructor. It took me years to get past my extreme shyness and nervousness, and to feel completely comfortable singing in front of him, even though I had performed numerous solos in public before I had even started taking lessons. It had nothing to do with him as a person or teacher, mind you. I was a nervous wreck before and during performances, too. My nervousness could be attributed entirely to my own lack of self-confidence, fear of embarrassment and mistrust in my singing voice. Knowing that he was a trained and highly skilled singer and an expert on the voice was nonetheless intimidating, though.)

If anxiety about singing higher notes is at the root of the singer's tension, it is usually best for the individual to sing only within a comfortable range of pitches until all of the fundamental aspects of healthy singing have first been addressed and demonstrated with consistency. A lack of confidence in one's ability to sing at higher tessituras), will lead to tension. Singing higher notes with tremendous muscular tension can lead to forcing and, sooner or later, to vocal fatigue, strain or injury. The expectation that pain will surely accompany the singing of higher notes may also make the singer feel very anxious about singing those higher pitches, which causes him or her to respond with even more muscular tension. Once the singer is consistently applying correct technique to his or her singing in a comfortable range, he or she will likely feel less nervous about gradually approaching the upper range, and will be able to do so with greater skill, comfort and confidence.

LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OF VOICE AND SINGING ANATOMY AS WELL AS POOR SPEECH HABITS AND VOCAL TECHNIQUE MAY CREATE TENSIONS DURING SINGING

One Finnish study by Liisa Lepp�niemi found that having little knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the vocal mechanism, such as the structure of the larynx and breathing mechanism, was associated with more neck muscle problems, whereas having good knowledge about the voice was associated with fewer such difficulties. Therefore, studying the anatomy of your voice and breath production will likely help you to gain better awareness and control of your muscles, and help you to relax them more readily.

It's important to remember that singing is only one aspect of voice, and that it is not unrelated to other phonatory functions, including speech. Errors in speech production may go unnoticed until the individual attempts to apply the same erroneous voice technique to his or her singing. The same study by Lepp�niemi also found that singing voice problems are often associated with detrimental speaking habits, which may include everything from improper tone production (e.g., breathiness, hypernasality, 'throatiness', a pressed sound, etc.) and 'placement' to ineffective breathing to shouting to speaking excessively. Becoming aware of your speaking habits may be another good place to start looking for answers to your muscle tension problem. Although bad singing habits don't always develop out of bad speaking habits - a lot of untrained singers use their muscles differently while singing than while talking - sometimes there is a link.

Possibly the greatest thing that you can do to resolve your muscle tension problems is to begin or continue studying vocal technique and learn how to use your voice properly. Studies, (such as the Laryngeal biomechanics of the singing voice. Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery , Volume 115 , Issue 6 , Pages 527 - 537 J . Koufman, T. Radomski, G. Joharji, G., Russell, D. Pillsbury), have shown that female professional singers have the lowest muscle tension scores, whereas amateur female singers display the greatest amount of muscle tension in their necks. In this same study, male singers, both professional and amateur, had intermediate muscle tension scores, and classical singers had lower muscle tension scores than non-classical (e.g., pop, rock, jazz, etc.) singers. It stands to reason, given the findings of this particular study, that getting vocal training that emphasizes proper (classical) technique is likely to be the best solution to neck muscle tension problems over time.

If you are just starting out, you may have some bad habits to rid yourself of, and some more training may help. If your instructor is any good, he or she will be able to help you figure out how to correct your habits and use your body properly for both singing and speaking tasks.

TENSION IN THE THROAT

The 'throat' is a very generalized area. Typically, the term throat refers to both the pharynx and the larynx, which may make finding the exact location where the tension is most felt a little challenging. Also, since all muscle tension along the vocal tract is interrelated, identifying the specific site of pain or tension may be impossible. Pain in the area of the larynx may be caused by incorrect use of the tongue, for example.

As always, an investigation into the reasons for throat tension should begin with a close assessment of the singer's vocal habits, including positioning of the tongue, jaw and neck. If generalized throat tension is your complaint, read the following sections carefully, and see if you can identify any specific maladaptive vocal behaviours that may be creating your tension.

If you are experiencing persistent generalized or localized pain in your throat, you may wish to consult with an otolaryngologist or an ear, nose and throat doctor (ENT) to see if he or she can pinpoint any underlying 'organic' (medical) or 'functional' (behavioural) problems that might be causing you to develop excessive tension in your muscles. For example, muscle tension dysphonia is characterized by the vocal folds failing to come completely together because two muscles are pulling them in opposite directions simultaneously. While the vocal folds have the ability to assume the correct position for a task, they do not because they are pulling against one another in an inefficient fashion. (This is thought to most likely be a learned behavior.) Your voice is a delicate instrument, and you need to take good care of it if you wish it to function well and to last for your lifetime. Sometimes a medical professional is the only one who can make an accurate diagnosis of your problem, and it's better to be safe than sorry.

TENSION IN THE TONGUE

Because the tongue is a complex bundle of muscles, tension felt in any part of the tongue is not typically confined to a particular region, such as the front, mid-portion or base. Rather, it is experienced throughout the entire organ.

Tongue tension usually occurs when the tongue is not permitted to move within the normal postures of speech production - that is, when it is not in accord with the rest of the vocal tract that produces phonetic formation. Singers should watch that they aren't doing anything significantly different with their tongue patterns while they sing than what they would do while speaking in that same range of pitches.

They should not exaggerate their articulatory motions in an effort to improve diction, as this is unnatural for the body and will likely create tension and constriction within the vocal tract. The tongue apex (tip) should remain in its resting position, making gentle contact with (i.e., not pressing firmly up against) the inner surface of the lower front teeth for all vowels and for numerous consonants. The tip of the tongue rises to the alveolar ridge, located on the hard palate behind the upper front teeth, only for certain consonants, and it occasionally assumes transitional locations for yet other consonant formations. The body of the tongue should remain in an arch and not be permitted to flatten.

Allowing the lips, jaw and tongue to follow patterns of spoken enunciation will cure most problems of tongue tension. Sometimes speaking phrases then singing them on a single pitch in lower-middle range with the same patterns of phonetic articulation as occur in speech can help to loosen the tongue. As pitch ascends, the mouth should open comfortably, but relative relationships among phonetic shapes should remain; that is, the tongue, as well as the mouth and lips, should continue to speak the integrity of the vowels and consonants.

The most successful exercises to reduce tension involve simulating a chewing motion, (not actually chewing anything, though). With the lips slightly apart, simulate a gentle and subtle chewing motion. Next, with the lips closed, hum a few pitches while moving the jaw up and down in a gentle chewing motion. Then, using the same lateral jaw movements experienced in chewing, sing a short phrase in comfortable range. (Some diction distortion will unavoidably take place because you won't be moving your jaw in natural phonetic ways.) Sometimes using a mirror to watch what is happening with the jaw and tongue helps. Follow this by singing the same phrase without the chewing motions. Then, introduce longer phrases, alternating chewing motions with normal articulation postures.

To loosen and relax tongue tension, the singer can sustain an affirmative spoken 'Hm!' at comfortable pitch and dynamic levels. Attention to the contact of the tongue apex (tip) with the inner surface of the lower front teeth should be drawn. While executing a vowel sequence quickly, such as /i-e-a-o-u/, the apex of the tongue can be moved in small back-and-forth motions against the inner surface of the lower front teeth. While sustaining the tone, stop the lateral movement of the tongue apex. The acoustic-at-rest posture of the tongue should be reestablished, eliminating tension in the tongue musculature. The singer can then return to musical phrases, insisting that the tongue retain this freedom.

The key in the above exercises is to keep the movements of the tongue very small and subtle. If the tip and body of the tongue are moving dramatically, the singer may end up increasing the tension instead of lessening it. As always, such exercises that involve moving the tongue are intended to be temporary measures used to eliminate tension and to give the singer experience of singing without tension, and should be gradually replaced with a more stable tongue posture that is appropriate to the articulatory demands once the singer begins to feel a decrease in tension or strain.

Another exercise that I've used with a couple students with retroflex tongues - tongues that habitually leave their proper resting positions and push back into the throat space involves placing the tip of the tongue on top of the lower teeth, just behind the lower lip while singing short scales or arpeggios. The most important thing is that the singer finds a relaxing position and learns to keep the tongue arched, forward and out of the throat space. Depending on what is causing the tongue and jaw tension, this slight stretching of the tongue may actually increase the tension, and the exercise should be stopped if the singer finds this to be the case. For some people, though, it helps them to relax, as they don't have to concentrate on articulating and sounding 'pretty'.

TENSION IN THE JAW

Jaw tension typically occurs from either clenching the jaw (often while sleeping, but also during waking tasks that should otherwise be relaxing activities, such as watching television) or hanging the jaw too low while singing. The singer should examine the posture of the tongue, jaw and neck, and watch that he or she isn't holding the jaw tightly (clenching) either during singing or during speaking tasks and that he or she isn't holding excessive tension in the jaw while not engaged in singing or speaking tasks.

This kind of continuous tension may lead to conditions such as temporomandibular joint dysfunction (or TMJ), characterized by clicking and popping sounds or stiffness of the jaw joints, that is often caused by poor posture, with lack of head, neck and torso alignment, as well as by tongue and jaw tension. Many singers have vocal habits, such as dropping the jaw excessively or thrusting it down and forward so that it becomes unhinged at the joints, that contribute to this dysfunction.

Some singers and teachers believe that a tight jaw can be cured by dropping it or forcing it downward. However, allowing the jaw to drop too low (or the mouth to open too widely), which some singers do in an effort to make their voices 'project' better or to increase the strength of the first formant, creates tension and decreases jaw mobility. It should also be noted that lowering the jaw excessively does not create more resonating space within the vocal tract. On the contrary, it narrows pharyngeal space and forces the submandibular musculature to press downward on the larynx, so natural volume is hampered and tone is distorted and becomes imbalanced.

Singers need to be mindful not only of how low their jaws are dropped, but also of how forward they are allowing them be. Many singers have a tendency to thrust their lower jaws forward during singing, known as the 'forward jaw technique', especially as they approach higher pitches or in an attempt to hear their own voices better inside their heads. Placing the jaw in a distended posture, however, invites acoustical and phonetic distortion - voice timbre becomes drastically distorted, with the higher overtones being cut out and an immature sound being produced - as well as malfunction of the vocal instrument.

Typically, thrusting the jaw forward forces the temporomandibular joints out of their sockets. When the jaw is placed in a forward position, undesirable tension in the submandibular region (muscles located below the jaw) is induced. The vocal folds approximate (close or come together) poorly, which causes breathiness and prevents the folds from functioning efficiently and healthily. The tongue also gets pushed back into the pharynx, filling up the primary resonator with tongue mass, creating a gag reflex at the tongue root and producing a throaty sound. This technique also elevates the larynx, which contradicts what the singer is trying to accomplish. With the larynx functioning in a high position, only a thin, immature sound is produced. A large 'break' in the voice (also due to the poor adduction of the vocal folds) is often produced. Finally, normal velar (soft palate) elevation is inhibited, so the soft palate assumes a low position, often resulting in a nasally or thin tone.

Whenever the jaw is thrust forward, there is also often not a healthy separation between jaw and tongue function, which makes the tongue tense and legato (an Italian word meaning 'tied together', suggesting that the transitions between notes should be smooth, without any silence between them) lines impossible to execute. The breath is often choked off by the root of the tongue, which is bunched up inside the throat space, making the breath line unhealthy and inefficient. The large amount of tension at the root of the tongue also distorts vowels.

Some singers are instructed to attempt to maintain the same very wide 'oval' mouth shape regardless of the vowel being sung, often referred to as the 'locked jaw' (or 'jaw locked open') position. However, since locking the jaw in one position does not promote the changing acoustic events of phonation, this technique distorts all the vowels throughout the entire range, destroying both diction and resonance balance. It also invites tensions throughout the vocal tract, as the jaw is not being permitted to move freely, as it would during speaking tasks.

It is also common for some teachers to incorrectly assume that students who don't have very wide mouth openings have tight or clenched jaws. Individual facial construction (i.e., either a small or large mouth-and-jaw construction) determines the degree of buccal aperture (mouth opening) in speaking and in singing that is normal and appropriate for an individual singer, and all singers should not be expected to look alike with regard to the extent of mouth opening. Returning to speaking tasks or incorporating spoken phrases into singing phrases, as described in the exercises below, will indicate what the jaw should be doing over a large part of the singing range for the individual.

Misalignment of the jaw structure can also impact the freedom of the jaw and movement of the mouth. Sometimes, a jaw that protrudes forward is caused by skeletal or cerebral misalignments or vertebral subluxations - when one or more vertebrae have lost their proper alignment with neighbouring vertebrae - that can be detected and corrected through quick and painless chiropractic adjustments.

The correct jaw position is slightly down and wrapped back in its joints. In Italian, this ideal singing posture is referred to as 'raccogliere la bocca', which translates as 'to collect the mouth'. Keeping the jaw in a comfortable and healthy position will decrease tensions and will encourage healthy and beautiful singing.

Once proper phonetic postures are reestablished (i.e., where the integrity of the vowel, determined by postures of the jaw, lips, tongue, velum and larynx are maintained, and flexible adjustments for rapid phonemic and pitch variations are encouraged), most singers recover from tension and conditions such as TMJ without the need for medical treatment.

One helpful technique for reducing jaw tension involves gentle massage of the jaw muscles. Relaxing the jaw and tongue, holding the teeth slightly apart while the lips remain closed, massage the muscles along the sides of the jaw with the pads of the fingers, rubbing very gently and being careful not to push into the jaw too hard. If tension is felt below the jaw, those muscles may also be massaged. This can be done between vocal exercises or songs, or whenever the individual becomes aware that he or she is holding tension in or clenching the jaw. Some chiropractors and massage therapists will do work on tense jaw muscles as well as TMJ, including massage and physical manipulation with a small, hand-held activator to correct any misalignments, so a singer might be able to find someone who can help to regain alignment and help control the muscle stiffness.

A standard exercise for reducing either type of jaw tension (i.e., clenching or hanging the jaw too low) involves adding subtle movements of the jaw during singing tasks. First, with lips apart, the singer would simulate a circular chewing motion for twenty to thirty seconds. Next, with lips closed, he or she would hum a few pitches, at the same time moving the jaw back and forth in a gentle chewing motion. Still using the lateral jaw movements experienced during chewing, the individual would then sing a short phrase in comfortable range. (Some momentary diction distortion will unavoidably take place.) A mirror can be used to note the looseness of the jaw as it retains its slightly circular motions. Follow this by singing the same phrase without the chewing motions. Then, introduce longer sung phrases, alternating chewing motions with normal articulation postures.

Next, move the jaw rapidly back and forth while speaking a single sustained vowel, being careful not to move the joints out their sockets. Wiggle the jaw sidewise for a moment or two, then stop moving it while sustaining the vowel. Do this with various vowels. Sing a longer passage, first while simulating small chewing motions, then without them.

If jaw muscle stiffness is very severe due to years of holding too much tension in that area of the body, correcting this problem may take a long time, as the musculature has become overly developed and tense. As always, singers may need to examine their habits and perhaps deal with any underlying psychological or emotional reasons for this excessive tension.

NECK (AND SHOULDER) MUSCLE TENSION

Tensions in the neck and shoulder region may significantly affect the voice, impairing both the top and bottom extremes of a singer's range. The shortening of the vocal folds due to muscle tension tends to leave the vocal folds open and separated, rather than closed, which can create undesirable tone when one is striving for clear, efficient tone with a high upper end.

Numerous muscles in the neck can be affected by tension. My readers often mention feeling pain in the neck muscles just above the collarbone, and report that they look as though they are straining. Whenever this is the case, the sternocleidomastoid muscles are most likely those which are giving them problems. There are two of these muscles in the superficial layers of the anterior (front) portion of the neck that make the shape of a 'V', and they are primarily helpful in rotation, flexing and extension of the head. They run from the centre of the sternum (breastbone) and the clavicle (collarbone) up to the mastoid process, a bone in the skull located behind the ears. The critical carotid arteries, internal jugular veins and vagus nerves, (which supply motor function and sensation to the larynx), run deep into these muscles.

The trapezius muscle may also be the culprit, or at least a co-conspirator, in neck pain. The trapezius muscle is the large, diamond-shaped muscle that is attached to the base of the skull in the back of the head, extends to the shoulders and shoulder blades, and attaches to the clavicle at its base. Since the trapezius muscles share a nerve supply with the sternocleidomastoid muscles, tension in the shoulders may be felt, as well. Tension in the shoulders can affect the neck's ability to remain relaxed during singing.

The sternocleidomastoid muscles, along with the scalene muscles - three muscles found in the side of the neck that elevate the first two ribs and tilt the neck to the sides, and are, essentially, responsible for holding up our heads - are accessory muscles involved in breathing, and they are activated to higher levels during both inhalation and phonation (the making of vocal sounds). Because these neck muscles play an important role in breathing, there will be some movement of them when the singer inhales and exhales.

However, while some subtle movement is normal because of the involvement that the sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles have in breathing, excessive movement or tension should not be seen or felt. Remember that singing occurs while you are exhaling, so there may be a little - very little - motion there while you are expelling air during singing. However, there really shouldn't be an excessive amount, and if you are feeling tension or soreness, then the movement is likely not healthy or natural. Sometimes, these muscles move and twitch simply because we cannot hold our heads up perfectly still, and the muscles have to compensate for and support any movement of our heads and necks. Again, however, if there is any detectable movement of those muscles at all, it should be very subtle (when you are attempting to sing while holding your head still and in a good position).

Singers who are experiencing neck muscle tension may need to examine how they use their breath, both during singing tasks and during relaxation. Either standing in front of a mirror or having a vocal teacher observe them as they breathe and noting whether there is any excessive movement or evidence of tension in these muscles during breathing is the best place to start.

Raised veins are another sign of tension. As noted above, some important veins and arteries run through the neck muscles, and tension in the muscles is likely what causes those veins to pop out. You should not be seeing the veins in your neck protruding or popping out at any time, even if you are thin or if your veins are very close to the skin's surface. (That look is reminiscent of the stereotypical 'hair metal' singer who screams while singing and who damages his or her voice through improper vocal technique, but is also seen in singers of all genres who have inappropriate registration transitions or who belt.)

Also, become aware of relaxed extrinsic musculature in contrast to tense musculature (e.g., veins popping out of the neck, excessive muscle movement in the neck, etc.). Tense extrinsic muscles generally lead to tense intrinsic muscles, which ultimately lead to vocal pathology, like vocal nodes and muscle tension dysphonia.

Moving the head a little as you sing may prevent you from holding your neck muscles too rigidly in one position for too long. However, be careful not to allow the head to move into or through positions that may further increase the tension in the neck, such as poking the chin forward, while doing these exercises. Also, before singing - and throughout the day - these muscles should be kept limber by doing neck rotation exercises, gently and slowly moving the neck in a full circle around its axis.

A scalene stretch is done by placing the hands behind the lower back, lowering one shoulder then tilting the head to the opposite side, then slowly rolling the head backwards until the stretch is felt. This position is held for ten to fifteen seconds. The exercise would then be repeated for the other side of the neck.

Muscle relaxation can also be achieved by taking a warm bath or allowing hot shower water to fall on your neck and shoulders, applying heating pads and by neck and shoulder massage. If neck and shoulder muscle tension are always present, the singer might benefit from regular appointments with a massage therapist or daily massages from a partner.

Many singers have an unconscious habit of elevating their heads in order to 'reach' high notes and lowering their heads in order to reach low notes. It is also common for singers who sing into boom microphones to stretch their necks forward. All of these habits can lead to neck muscle, shoulder and throat tension. Assuming an overly low head position presses the submandibular muscles downward on the larynx. Raising the head or stretching the neck forward - sometimes called 'turtle-ing' - doesn't encourage relaxation because the muscles of the neck are no longer in alignment with the rest of the body, and they are no longer assuming normal or comfortable postures. When singing (and speaking, for that matter), the head should be held neither too high nor too low, but should remain in the communicative position of normal speech.

A lot of people have maladaptive postures of the neck, jaw and spine during routine tasks, such as sitting, that may undermine healthy vocal production. Be mindful of your posture throughout the day, not just while singing, as consistently poor postural habits will affect how your muscles 'remember' their positions during singing.

For example, slouching causes the head to stray forward and down off the shoulders - out of its normal alignment - which in turn causes the scalenes and other muscles to have to work much harder to hold up the approximate ten-pound weight of the head. In order to do so, these muscle groups must tighten and shorten. Since the bottom of the scalenes also attach to the first rib located just behind the collarbone, the neck vertebrae become compressed, causing the first rib to get pulled upward, potentially narrowing the space available for the brachial plexus - an arrangement of nerve fibers, running from the spine through the neck, passing under the scalene muscles, the armpit region and then into the arm - to pass between the first rib and the collarbone. The entire nerve bundle becomes pinched and irritated at the neck. The scalenes may also get stuck to the covering of fascia - a thin, tight sheath of connective tissue that wraps around muscles - surrounding the nerve plexus. The adhesions trap and irritate the nerve bundle that brings sensation to the arm and hand, which may cause symptoms associated with thoracic outlet syndrome (but are often confused with carpal tunnel syndrome). Whenever the head is moved, the fascia of the brachial plexus gets tugged and irritated. Over time, the scalene muscles begin to adhere to one another and then start 'sticking' to neighbouring structures as they look for support form the constant strain. If there is strain in any part of this region of the body, then the opportunity for adhesions to form exists.

Nerves that run through our muscles carry messages from the brain to those muscles, and these nerves need a clear path in order to help the muscles be effective. Because of this nerve-muscle connection, and because of the importance of good posture, I strongly recommend visiting a chiropractor. A chiropractor can quickly identify and safely correct vertebral subluxations, such as misalignments of the neck bones, that may be blocking the nerve signals to your muscles and even your lungs. Also, subluxations can affect your posture, which is important for effective breath support and good tone during singing.

Watch that you don't extend your neck forward like a turtle - this applies even while you are just sitting at your desk or standing and having a conversation with someone - or lift your chin up on high notes or lower it on low notes, as this will increase the work that your neck muscles must do while singing. It can also negatively impact airflow. Have your vocal instructor pay close attention to your posture, particularly that of your neck, chin and lower jaw, while you are singing. Observe your own posture in a mirror.

If a singer incorrectly bridges his or her passaggi - the places in the scale where the singer changes vocal registers - neck muscle tension may mount. In particular, whenever a singer attempts to carry chest voice function upwards well past the lower passaggio, a lot of movement of the sternocleidomastoid muscles can usually be detected. While the singer may not feel a great deal of strain, he or she may complain that this section of the range feels like 'work'. The tone will generally become increasingly 'shouty' and forced. If neck muscle tension seems most prominent in the middle portion of your range, just above the lower passaggio, it is possible that you are carrying your natural (chest) voice up higher than it ought to go - past the spot where it should be shifting into mixed or head voice. Your instructor should be able to help you figure out if you are subjecting your voice to register abuse; that is, if you are not allowing registration changes to occur where they naturally would.

If you are 'belting' to hit those high 'money notes', or any other note for that matter, you need to be careful. Learn the difference between pressed or constricted phonation and flow phonation. Flow phonation is characterized by ease and comfort in singing throughout the entire vocal range, as well as appropriate levels of airflow and appropriate vocal fold activity (marked by appropriate and healthy registration shifts). If you are attempting to belt out, you may be shouting. Instead of attempting to 'project' your voice, which can be a dangerous practice because it usually requires shouting (and thus subjecting the vocal folds to excessive breath pressure), take advantage of your proper 'placement', clear tone, effective resonance and breath support, which will produce sufficient, unforced volume with all the overtones present for you to be heard, and for your voice to sound impressive.

An article co-written by Kate A. Emerich, a voice pathologist and singing voice specialist, and Mary J. Sandage, Senior SLP at the University of Wisconsin Voice Clinic, Division of Otolaryngology (http://www.asha.org/about/publications/leader-online/archives/2002/q3/f020723.htm) reports a potential link between sinus problems and acquired muscle tension dysphonia while singing. They write: "For singers with acute sinusitis or seasonal rhinitis, clogged nasal passages that result in a hyponasal vocal quality can prevent the sound from resonating in the sinus cavities. Many singers rely on the kinesthetic feedback from this ringing quality to know that they are using proper tone. Hyponasality can hamper loudness ability, potentially leading to overuse of other muscles in the neck for increased loudness demands." It is possible, then, that neck muscle tension can developed over time in order to compensate for the tone production difficulties that singers have due to sinus problems and allergies that have not been properly treated.

Neck and shoulder problems are often interrelated with the experience of psychological stress, which may include depression and anxiety, so it's important for the singer to stay healthy, both physically and mentally. A healthy lifestyle and good awareness and avoidance of factors affecting the voice and singing can also help in preventing vocal problems.

The singer and teacher team also needs to ensure that vibrato is a natural result of good resonance, breath support and balanced tone rather than something that the singer is forcing or fabricating by making his or her muscles, jaw and/or tongue 'quiver' or shake. (I always encourage singers and their teachers to avoid placing too much emphasis on developing and using vibrato because it gives students the impression that they can't sound good without it and that they must make it happen no matter what. Having that kind of pressure is potentially dangerous for the voice because students will often develop unhealthy ways to achieve vibrato, many of which create excess muscle tension in the neck, tongue, jaw and throat.)

TENSION IN THE SUBMANDIBULAR (BELOW THE JAW) REGION

The submandibular musculature is located immediately below the jaw and above the hyoid bone. This area is sometimes referred to as the submandibular or digastric triangle.

Singers who lower their chins or their jaws excessively may find that pressure is placed on the larynx by the submandibular muscles.

In some pedagogic practices, singers are encouraged to consciously expand the submandibular musculature because it is mistakenly assumed to 'open the throat' or widen the pharynx. Conscious efforts to spread the pharyngeal wall by outward (or external) movement of the submandibular musculature fail to produce an open throat and lead to an unpleasant, 'throaty' or hollow timbre. They also create tensions among muscle groups located between the mandible (jaw) and the hyoid bone, including the mylohyoid, geniohyoid, stylohyoid, hyoglossus and digastric muscles (the 'loop muscle', which is attached to the hyoid bone), and cause strain in the tongue and the muscle systems lodging the larynx. Furthermore, consciously expanding this region places the pharyngeal constrictors in positions unrelated to freedom in singing.

During the singing and speaking of vowels, there is noticeable but limited movement of the throat wall as the external musculature differentiates the vowels, (e.g., in a sequence such as /i-e-a-o-u/), but there is no sustained outward distension.

In order to help release muscle tension in the submandibular area, place the tongue apex (tip) between the upper and lower teeth, with the lips closed, and rapidly but gently move the jaw back and forth while humming. At the same time, check the region below the jaw with the fingers to ensure that it is remaining soft and relaxed.

INABILITY TO SING HIGH NOTES WITHOUT STRAIN, DISCOMFORT OR PAIN

In both men and women, in all voice types, an inability to sing in the head register is associated with technical errors. In many cases, these technical errors are induced by anxiety associated with the singing of higher notes.

Most commonly, it is the result of incorrect vocal posture, including an elevated larynx, a retracted (retroflex) or flattened tongue that gets pushed back into the throat space, a protruding lower jaw, an excessively lowered jaw (and thus an overly opened mouth), and a chin that is either raised or lowered. It is also quite typical to see singers avoiding the use of acoustically modified vowels - see vowel modification - and attempting, instead, to maintain speech-like vowel sounds in the upper range, or attempting to carry the lower mechanism of the voice (chest voice) up too high in the scale (past the lower passaggio). The voice inevitably begins to feel and sound increasingly strident and strained as the scale is ascended, and particularly as the second passaggio is reached and crossed.

My first point of focus when listening to and watching a student is vocal posture. A singer can also examine his or her own vocal posture by using a wall (or hand-held) mirror while singing, or by getting someone else, such as a choir director, vocal teacher or friend, to observe what's happening in the mouth and neck regions. They should look to see that the tongue is remaining arched and forward, with its tip resting gently behind the lower front teeth. This will prevent the root of the tongue from pushing back into the throat space, creating a gag reflex and placing pressure directly on the larynx - this poor technique is often referred to as a 'muscular cover'. Next, they should watch that the head, and specifically the ears, are positioned over the shoulders and that the chin is neither raised nor lowered. The lower jaw should not be allowed to push forward, but should be kept gently wrapped up and back ('collected') in its joints.

When articulating vowels in the upper middle range (the few notes preceding the upper or secondo passaggio, which marks the beginning of the head register), the jaw should be allowed to lower comfortably (but not excessively) and create more of a vertical mouth opening as opposed to a lateral or side-to-side (speech-like) mouth shape. This will help the vowels to modify naturally, altering their acoustics and the relationship among the vowel formants to create a more pleasant tone, and allowing the larynx to remain in a lower (not depressed, though), more relaxed position. (I have written an entire article on Singing With An Open Throat: Vocal Tract Shaping, which discusses these optimal vocal postures in greater detail, and another on Vowels, Vowel Formants and Vowel Modification, which provides much more detail about how to successfully aid the transition into your upper register.)

Many singers, and especially males but also some females, vainly attempt to 'muscle' their way up the scale, relying on heavy use of their musculature during upper range singing. Excessive muscular effort leads to forcing (as in pressed phonation), which can be damaging to the vocal instrument. They tend to encounter problems such as strain, tension, pain, discomfort, loss of tone quality, loss of voice, etc. in the area of their second passaggio as a result. This often occurs in conjunction with the habit of carrying the heavier mechanism of the voice (chest voice function) all the way up to the second passaggio. Singers should never push their chest voice up any higher in the scale than the primo passaggio, and this includes avoiding the use of belt technique (which, though not entirely chest voice function, is still more heavily weighted - more thyroarytenoid dominant - than it should be in the middle register). Doing so places strain on the voice, and the voice becomes increasingly strident and forced because the singer now has to call or shout in order to hit those notes without breaking. Knowing where one's registration transition points (passaggi) are located and being aware of the natural tendencies of the voice will help a singer to make the best choices when it comes to shifting registers at appropriate places in the scale.

Singing exclusively in belt voice through the middle register will also create numerous issues with registration and range, as well as tension (since it's a highly muscular way of singing). Belt is not typically carried above the secondo passaggio. If a singer is accustomed only to belting in the middle and upper middle range, he or she may not be able to adjust to the purely cricothyroid dominant muscular function that is necessary in the head register. For numerous reasons, it is best for the singer to cease belting and to spend some time developing appropriate middle register function and timbre - a clear, balanced tone - before the head register can be more easily and comfortably accessed. (Belting produces a less balanced tone in which the upper overtones or harmonic partials are favoured over the lower harmonic partials, making the tone of belting highly 'chiaro' or bright. You may need to work on resonance balancing, also referred to as formant tuning.)

Typically, singers use extra muscular effort in the upper middle and upper range because they feel the need to maintain speech-like sounds and vowels, rather than accepting the natural laws of acoustics - every vowel has its own unique acoustic needs and qualities at every pitch - and allowing their vowels to gradually and naturally modify to match the pitch being sung. (This is most commonly seen in singers of contemporary genres.) Ideally, the singer should be starting to make an acoustical shift, adopting acoustical (modified) vowels, and getting into head voice timbre earlier in the scale - around the primo (first) passaggio for males and several notes before the second passaggio for females - allowing the larynx to pivot (as opposed to rise) through adjustments of the vocal tract such as vowel modification.

Also, many males do not sing in full, legitimate head voice tones, and instead sing primarily in falsetto tones in their upper range. (In my Glossary of Vocal Terms, I have written sections on both falsetto and head voice, and the difference between the two.) Essentially, in falsetto, the vocal folds are not completely approximated (together) during phonation, and the thin edges present little resistance to breath pressure. As a result, the tone is more 'flute-like' or sometimes raspy, and lacking in overtones. (Falsetto is widely considered to be a sound made in the upper male range that is imitative of female upper-range qualities. As the word implies, it is 'false', or is a departure from pure or full performance timbre.) In head voice, however, the folds are closer together during phonation, which creates more resistance to airflow and a greater build-up of subglottic (below the vocal folds) pressure, as well as a clearer, stronger tone that is richer in overtones. Both of these qualities occur within the same vocal register - within the same range of pitches - beginning at the secondo passaggio (registration pivotal point), but are not simply two different words to describe the same thing. (When female singers leave a space between the vocal folds during singing, they merely sound breathy, raspy or gravelly, so it isn't standard practice to say that a female singer is singing in falsetto.)

If a male singer has only ever sung in falsetto tones above his second passaggio, he may be unaccustomed to producing a full voice with the folds elongated and taut, and this will naturally present some technical challenges. As he ascends in pitch, the folds become increasingly stretched and thin, and present greater resistance to breath pressure. Many men are only able to produce falsetto tones in the upper register because they don't know how to adjust their musculature and breath pressure to cope with the added resistance created by more firmly adducted (closed) vocal folds. They may also become dependent on the softer onset that is produced when the vocal folds aren't completely together. Producing falsetto tones almost becomes habitual, so that the singer can't produce full head voice when he wants to because his musculature is no longer up for the job.

For male singers who are only able to access the head register with falsetto tones, I would make use of falsetto to gently and gradually guide them toward singing in full head voice tones. Ordinarily, as a starting point, I would suggest singing in upper-range one semitone at a time, starting in falsetto, then moving straight into full head voice on the same note and the same breath in order to help train the folds to adjust to the increased breath pressure experienced in head voice singing. Because of the softer onset that occurs in falsetto production, this exercise may help the male singer to avoid pressing the voice or forcing to produce head voice timbre, yet still gradually adjust to the sounds and sensations of head voice.

In addition to falsetto tones, whiny baby sounds may helps some students, male or female, access their head register. These sounds keep the vocal folds separated a little, just as in falsetto production. Many times, singers find that making these silly noises 'loosens' them up and helps them to sing higher notes with less inhibition. Also, it trains the vocal instrument to allow the natural muscular changes that produce higher pitches to occur and allows the folds to thin and elongate (stretch) and the larynx to pivot. I suggest not using these 'ugly' sounds as a prolonged training technique, however, as they may negatively affect other aspects of singing technique, such as precision of onsets, breath management and tonal balance.

Many of my students have actually found that mimicking the exaggerated, stereotypical sounds of opera singers (tenors or sopranos) helps them to sing pitches in head voice. It can be kind of fun, and takes the pressure off. More importantly, though, the modified vowels that opera singers use to produce that characteristically operatic sound are actually what enables them to access their head registers, and through mimicry, students often unwittingly end up making the necessary and appropriate adjustments to their vocal tracts, too. Imitating an operatic sound, though not ideal in the long-term of vocal development because it creates a sound that isn't necessarily authentic to the individual instrument, may help the singer avoid the mistake of vainly attempting to retain speech-like sounds in the upper register - trying to keep their words sounding just like they do in speech, which puts strain on the vocal instrument and doesn't allow the larynx to pivot properly. Remember that the goal in the upper extension of the range - the part of the singer's range that lies above speech level inflection - should not be to sound exactly as one does during speech but, instead, to produce vowel sounds that are acoustically balanced. This means allowing the acoustics - and even the articulation, to a certain extent - of the vowels to modify naturally.

Another exercise that might help the singer start accessing the higher range involves using lip trills (vibrating the lips together) or tongue trills ("rolling the r's" at the tip of the tongue, as in the Spanish language) while singing scales, glides and arpeggios in both an ascending and descending pattern. Trills involve less of the vocal folds and no constriction of sound or resonance within the vocal tract until either the tongue tip or lip levels, so they often enable singers to reach higher pitches than they otherwise could while articulating vowels and consonants. Trills make ideal warm-ups, too, because they quickly loosen up the entire vocal tract, are relaxing and not technically challenging, and kick the breathing mechanism into high gear.

One exercise that I use with my students involves trilling that is immediately followed by a vowel sound. The singer begins trilling in a five-note descending major scale pattern (5-4-3-2-1), then immediately and without stopping or taking a breath ascends the same five-note scale (2-3-4). When the top note of the scale (5) is reached again, the singer begins singing a vowel sound on the way back down the scale. (Tongue trilling is usually a little easier for this purpose because the lips are already separated, making the vowel more easily and readily articulated.) This exercise should begin in comfortable middle range, then gradually be carried higher into upper middle then upper range. As always, signs of tension should be monitored.

Also, for many singers, thinking of their voice as a line in front of their face is a helpful visual tool to use. This visualization technique is typically called 'forward placement', and although the voice can't technically be placed anywhere along the vocal tract, thinking this way often prevents the voice from slipping back into the throat. It keeps the sensation of resonance forward in the hard, bony structures of the face (sometimes called the 'mask' or 'masque'), and often helps the singer avoid the temptation of pushing the tongue backward and overly widening the soft palate and pharynx (creating an unpleasantly hollow or 'throaty' sound). Thinking of that line in front of the face moving downward in an arch as pitch ascends may also help the singer to 'darken' or 'round' his or her vowels, enabling a smoother transition through the upper passaggio.

If at any point in the upper middle or upper register, your voice begins to feel tight, strained or painful to produce, or sounds 'squeaky' and pinched, it is important that you stop singing immediately and descend the scale to a place where singing is again comfortable. You're not yet ready to sing those higher notes because you aren't applying correct, safe, healthy technique to those pitches. If you continue to sing those notes incorrectly, you could end up damaging your voice. In Tips For Practicing Singing: A Practical Guide To Vocal Development, I have included a section on increasing vocal range that contains more advice on how to safely do so.

If you feel as though there is a particular aspect of throat, jaw, tongue and neck muscle tension that I haven't covered in this article, or if you wish to discuss the details of your vocal problems with me, please feel free to e-mail me, and I will be happy to provide a prompt and thorough response. Depending upon how globally relevant I feel that the particular issue is, I may also choose to create a section in this article that will contain my response so that other singers will be able to benefit from the information, too.